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Making Effective Use of Memory
How to use paged and common memory, RAM, Flash and EEPROM on the 68HC11 based QScreen Controller


Here you'll learn about the memory map of the QScreen Controller, the types of available memory (Flash, RAM, and EEPROM), different regions of memory, where the compiler allocates memory, how paged memory works, and how to access paged memory from C language programs. Understanding these issues will help you to write highly effective programs for your instrument control and automation applications.

 

The QScreen Controller’s memory map

The QScreen Controller combines an embedded computer based on the 68HC11 microcontroller with a touch panel and LCD (liquid crystal display) graphic user interface (GUI) that is ideal for instrument control and automation. The QScreen Controller uses a paged memory system to expand the processor’s 64Kbyte address space to 2 Megabyte of addressable memory. The top half (32 Kbytes) of the address space (at addresses 0x8000 to 0xFFFF) addresses a common memory page that is always visible (i.e., accessible using standard 16-bit addresses) to any code running, no matter where it resides in the memory space. The bottom half (32 Kbytes) of the address space (at addresses 0x0000 to 0x7FFF) is duplicated many times and addressed through the processor’s 16-bit address bus augmented by an 6-bit page address. Together the address and page are held in a 32-bit data type, an xaddress.

A subroutine on any page can fetch or store to any address on the same page or in the common memory, or transfer control to another routine there. It "sees" a 64K address space comprising its own page at addresses from 0x0000 to 0x7FFF and the common memory at addresses 0x8000 to 0xFFFF. To address memory on another page, or to call a routine on another page, special memory access routines are used to change the page. The heap memory manager and array routines allow you to think of the paged memory as contiguous memory for data storage. The operating system automatically handles function calls and returns among the pages.

The operating system is designed so that there is very little speed penalty associated with changing pages.

Figure 1 illustrates the memory map of the QScreen. Briefly, the upper 32K of the 68HC11's address space, the common memory, is always accessible without a page change. In the lower 32K of the processor’s address space, the operating system creates 64 pages of memory selected by an 6 bit on-chip port, with each page containing 32 Kbytes. The 32K of common memory at addresses 0x8000 to 0xFFFF (the upper half of the processor’s memory space) is always accessible without a page change. Up to 64 pages (32K per page) occupy the paged memory at addresses 0x0000 to 0x7FFF. The first 9 pages of the QScreen Controller’s 48 pages of installed memory are shown in the figure.

RAM FLASH and EEPROM paged memory on the 68HC11 microcontroller
Fig. 1  The paged memory address space of the 68HC11 based QScreen Instrument Controller. The pages are contiguous; address automatically wrap from the top of one page to the bottom of the next.
 

Common memory

The common memory is addressed at locations 0x8000 – 0xFFFF. Some of it is used by the 68HC11 processor, some by the Forth kernel, and some is available for your programs to use. The processor’s registers are located at 0x8000 – 0x805F, onboard hardware occupies addresses through 0x80FF, and the operating system reserves memory through location 0x8DFF for user areas, buffers, and stacks. For example, the default user area that runs the interactive Forth interpreter occupies 0x8400 – 0x84FF.

The 8 Kbytes at locations 0x8E00 – 0xADFF are available RAM for the user. The Control-C compiler uses this area for static variables, arrays, task areas, etc.

The processor’s on-chip EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is located at 0xAE00 – 0xAFFF. Locations 0xAE00 – 0xAEBF are reserved by the operating system for use by the SAVE and RESTORE utilities, and for interrupt vectors. EEPROM at 0xAEC0 – 0xAFFF is available to your programs.

The 68HC11’s 1 Kbyte of on-chip RAM is located at 0xB000 – 0xB3FF. Locations 0xB3F0 – 0xB3FF are reserved for the real-time clock buffers. Locations 0xB3D0-0xB3DF are reserved for support of Forth interrupt service routines called from C-compiled programs. Locations 0xB200 – 0xB3CF are reserved for the flash programming routines. Locations 0xB000 – 0xB1FF are always available to the programmer (this area is named ONCHIP_RAM in the C linker command file; C programmers can locate data in this area using a #pragma directive).

Locations 0xB400 – 0xBFFF and 0xC100 – 0xFFFF contain kernel code. A notch at 0xC000 – 0xC07F is not decoded by any onboard devices; this location is used to communicate with the Wildcards.

 

Paged memory

Occupying this memory space are 1M Flash and 513K RAM. Of the QScreen Controller’s 1M of Flash memory, all but 64K is available for your application program and data storage. The 64K of flash is used by the QED Forth Kernel for its multitasking operating system, debugger, interactive Forth compiler, assembler, and hundreds of pre-coded device driver functions.

Of the 513K of RAM, 509K is available for application program use.

 

QScreen memory map by function

The following table illustrates the partitioning of the onboard memory between the operating system (Kernel) and your application functions. Most of the Flash memory is available as three blocks of contiguously addressable memory on pages 4-6, 10-17, and 20-2F. RAM for your application program is also available in three chunks, filling pages 1-3, 8-B, and 18-1F. There is 20K available RAM on page 0F; note that RAM at 0x3000-3FFF on page 0F is used by the operating system as a flash programming buffer. There is approximately 9K RAM in the common memory; this 9K area is particularly important because it is used to hold C variables and task space for each separate task your application program sets up.

Table 4-1 Partition of Flash and RAM among Kernel and Application Functions

Function Size Memory
Page
Memory
Address
Physical Location
Kernel Flash (72K)
Kernel 32K 00 0000 – 7FFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
Kernel 1K 0E Various QScreen Flash Socket 1
Kernel 19K common B400 – FFFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
Kernel 12K 0F 0000 – 2FFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
GUI Toolkit 8K 07 0000 – 1F4A QScreen Flash Socket 1
Kernel RAM (4K)
Kernel 3.5K common 8000 – 8DFF QScreen RAM
Kernel 0.5K 0E Various QScreen RAM
RTC 48 bytes B3D0– B3FF 68HC11
Kernel EEPROM (192 bytes)
Kernel 192 bytes common AE00 – AEBF 68HC11
Application Flash (448K or 960K)
Application code 96K 04 – 06
(01– 03)
0000 – 7FFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
Kernel Extensions 96K 07,0C,0D 0000 – 7FFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
Application code and data 256K 10 – 17
(18 – 1F)
0000 – 7FFF QScreen Flash Socket 1
Application code and data, available
with extended memory option
512K 20 – 2F 0000 – 7FFF QScreen Flash Socket 2
Application RAM (509K)2
C Variables 512 bytes common B000 – B1FF 68HC11
C Variables,
Flash write buffer7
464 bytes common B200 – B3CF 68HC11
C Variables and task area 8K common 8E00 – ADFF QScreen RAM
Flash write buffer,
GUI buffer7
20K 0F 3000 – 7FFF QScreen RAM
Arrays and heap memory 64K 01,02
(04,05)
0000 – 7FFF QScreen RAM
Ether, CF, GUI Buffers8 32K 03
(06)
0000 – 7FFF QScreen RAM
Arrays and heap memory 128K 08-0B 0000 – 7FFF QScreen RAM
Arrays and heap memory 256K 18 – 1F
(10 – 17)
0000 – 7FFF QScreen RAM
Application EEPROM
EEPROM Variables 320 bytes Common AEC0 – AFFF 68HC11
Notes:
1. Pages not enclosed in parentheses indicate the standard, or run-time memory map; pages in parentheses indicate the addressing of the memory during program download, i.e., the download memory map.
2. The QScreen was previously available with a smaller 128K off-chip battery-backed RAM; this option has been discontinued.
3. Application code is free to reside on pages 04-06 and 10-17.
4. Addresses from 8000 through FFFF comprise common memory that is visible to code on all pages.
5. Addresses from C000 through C0FF are reserved for memory-mapped Wildcard I/O modules.
6. Addresses from 3000 through 3FFF on page 0F are reserved for flash programming buffers. The overlaid area at 0x3000-47FF on page 0F is a graphics display buffer, and the remaining RAM at 0x4800-7FFF on page 0F is devoted to a graphics toolkit heap. Thus RAM on page 0F should not be used by the application program on the QScreen.
7. QScreens shipped earlier than June 2015 use common RAM at 0xB200 – 0xB3CF as a flash write buffer, and variables may be allocated here if flash is not updated at runtime; the GUI Toolkit calibrate_touchscreen() routine updates flash at runtime. QScreens shipped June 2015 and later use a larger flash write buffer on page 0x0F at 0x3000 – 0x3FFF. QScreen GUI Toolkit versions 1.92 and earlier are intended for older QScreens and use a graphics buffer on page 0x0F at 0x3000 – 0x47FF; QScreen GUI Toolkit versions 1.93 may be used with any QScreen, and use a graphics buffer on page 0x03 (see next note).
8. Page 3 is used at runtime by various kernel extension libraries as buffer space.
    The Compact Flash and USB-Drive Wildcards use 0x4000–0x7FFF on page 3.
    GUI Toolkit versions 1.93 and later use 0x2000–0x3FFF on page 3.
    The Ether/WiFi Wildcards use 0x0000 – 0x1FFF on page 3.

The common memory is also partitioned between the operating system and application program. The following table shows the addresses used by the operating system and in boldfaced type those addresses available to the application program.

Table 4-2 Partition of the Common Memory

Address Size (bytes) Type Function
C100 – FFFF 16128 Flash Kernel – code
C000 – C0FF 256 I/O Memory mapped I/O
B400 – BFFF 3072 Flash Kernel – code
B3F0 – B3FF 16 RAM Kernel – Real Time Clock Buffer
B3E0 – B3EF 16 RAM Kernel
B3D0 – B3DF 16 RAM Kernel – C/Forth ISR vectors
B200 – B3CF 464 RAM Application – C variables at runtime, Flash write buffer during program download
B000 – B1FF 512 ONCHIP_RAM Application – C variables
AEC0 – AFFF 320 EEPROM Application – nonvolatile storage
AE00 – AEBF 192 EEPROM Kernel
8E00 – ADFF 8192 RAM Application – C Variables and multitasking task areas
8500 – 8DFF 2304 RAM Kernel – buffers and stacks
8400 – 84FF 256 RAM Kernel – Forth user area
8060 – 83FF 928 RAM Kernel – buffers and stacks
8000 – 805F 96 RAM Kernel – processor Control Registers
Shaded entries indicate memory available for application programs.
 

QScreen memory map by page

It's sometimes nice while programming to have an overall view of the the QScreen's memory map organized page by page, as shown in the following table:

Page RAM Flash Notes
Common 11.5K 19K Kernel Flash and RAM, 8K of the RAM is available for your application
00 32K Kernel Flash
01,02
(04,05)
64K RAM available for your application,
used for compiling Forth code in download map.
03
(06)
32K RAM used for compiling Forth code, and buffers at runtime:
0x0000 – 0x1FFF: Ether/WiFi v3.0 and later
0x2000 – 0x3FFF: GUI Toolkit v1.93 and later
0x4000 – 0x7FFF: Compact Flash Wildcard
04-06
(01-03)
96K RAM and Flash page addresses are swapped in the download map
(the top 6 bytes of page 04 are reserved for an autostart vector);
Forth code compiled in RAM is saved with page.to.flash.
07 32K 8.6K used by the GUI Toolkit, the rest available for KXs
08-0B 128K RAM available for your application
0C 32K Flash available for KXs, write protectable by installing jumper J8,
enabling "bullet-proof" kernel extensions
(the top 6 bytes of page 0C are reserved for a boot vector)
0D 32K Flash available for KXs
0E 0.5K 1K Kernel
0F 20K 12K Flash (0000-2FFF) is used by the kernel
RAM at 3000-3FFF is used for flash programming
in QScreens shipped June 2015 and later.
10-17
(18-1F)
256K Flash swappable with RAM in the download map
18-1F
(10-17)
256K RAM swappable with Flash in the download map
20-2F 512K Available with –MM option
Total: 512K 512 or
1024K
Notes: Pages without parentheses are those of the standard map, and pages in parentheses are for the download map.
The shaded, diagonally opposed boxes represent memory areas whose page addresses are swapped in the download map.
Underlined memory is available with the –MM option.
Beyond the RAM and Flash depicted here, there is an additional 1K of RAM and 512 bytes of EEPROM contained in the processor itself.

It is possible to swap the page addresses of complimentary sections of RAM and Flash memory. For Forth programmers this makes code development particularly easy. You can develop and test your code by compiling directly into RAM using the download map, then copy the code to Flash and swap RAM and Flash page addresses by changing to the standard map. Your code is then in Flash at the same addresses at which it was compiled.

 

Addressing memory in C

Although 5-bits are sufficient to address the 32 possible pages, the page is padded out to a more standard 16-bit data type so that the full address, lower 16 bits plus 16-bit page, occupies 32 bits. We’ll refer to this full address as an xaddress (32-bit extended addresses). Three macros are available in the \fabius\include\mosaic\types.h file to simplify the manipulation of xaddresses and their constituent 16-bit addresses and pages. These C macros are can be found in the C V4.4 Function Glossary, and are listed here:

 
TO_XADDR
XADDR_TO_ADDR
XADDR_TO_PAGE

Multi-page C programs rely on a "page change" routine in the common kernel memory to call functions on other pages. Unlike the Forth compiler, the C compiler is not "page smart", and does not know at compile time whether a page change is needed. In fact, page changes are rarely needed, because most functions call other functions that are located on the same page or in common memory. Calls to functions on the same page or to common memory take only 11.5 or 13.75 microseconds, respectively, while function calls to other pages require just under 49 microseconds. Because page changes are rare, the average execution speed of multi-page C applications is not significantly impacted by the need for page changes.

 

Addressing Flash

Flash memory is nonvolatile, like PROM. Thus it retains its contents even when power is removed, and provides an excellent location for storing program code. Simple write cycles to the device do not modify the memory contents, so the program code is fairly safe even if the processor "gets lost". But flash memory is also re-programmable, and the flash programming functions are present right in the QScreen Controller's onboard software library. These functions invoke a special memory access sequence to program the flash memory contents "on the fly". This allows you to modify your operating software (for example, to perform system upgrades). You can also store data in the flash device. You can program from 1 byte up to 65,535 bytes with a single function call using the pre-coded flash programming routine. Programming time is approximately 60 milliseconds per kilobyte.

Six special functions facilitate access to Flash memory. Their function names are:

  • DownloadMap()          PageToFlash()
  • StandardMap()          PageToRAM()
  • WhichMap()               ToFlash()
Update to GUI Toolkit 1.93 or later for new QScreens
The FLASH programming functions use RAM buffers at addresses 0x3000-3FFF on page 0F, and in the 68HC11's on-chip RAM at hex addresses B200-B3CF. These buffers are used (overwritten) during code downloads or whenever ToFlash() or PageToFlash() is executed. Because the flash programming buffer on page 0F overlays the QScreen's graphic display buffer in GUI Toolkit versions 1.92 and earlier, any runtime execution of ToFlash() or PageToFlash() will corrupt memory. The GUI Toolkit routine calibrate_touchscreen() internally calls ToFlash(). For this reason we recommend that you update to the latest version of the GUI Toolkit software for any QScreen hardware version; contact Mosaic Industries for assistance.
 

Software development using Flash memory

Because code cannot be downloaded or compiled directly into flash memory, the flash memory map implements page swapping to provide a mechanism for getting the compiled code into the flash memory. There are two page-swap modes: one is called the Standard Map and the other is called the Download Map. As the names suggest, the Standard Map is used during run-time, and the Download Map is used during downloading C-compiler S-records from the PC to the QScreen. The two maps are very similar; the effect of changing from the Standard to the Download map is to swap the locations of pages between the flash and the RAM.

Table 5-4 Addressing the Flash and RAM in Standard and Download Memory Maps

Flash Pages RAM Pages
Standard Address Map 04 – 06 10 – 17 01 – 03 18 – 1F
Download Address Map 01 – 03 18 – 1F 04 – 06 10 – 17

In normal operation the Flash memory is addressed on pages 04-06 and 10-17, and the RAM is addressed on pages 01-03 and 18-1F. During download their addresses are swapped, so that the Flash is addressed at pages 01-03 and 18-1F and the RAM at pages 04-06 and 10-17.

To see how it works let’s consider a hypothetical download. Suppose you have compiled code intended to load into the Flash and run from it at addresses on page 4. Automated commands contained in the download file establish the download map, load the code into RAM, transfer the code to flash, and re-establish the standard map. In this case, the download file would:

  1. Swap the addresses of the RAM and Flash (by executing the command DOWNLOAD.MAP) so that the RAM is now addressed on page 04;
  2. Download the code to its proper addresses on page 04;
  3. Copy the code (using the command PAGE.TO.FLASH) from page 04 into the Flash addressed on page 01; then,
  4. Swap (by executing the command STANDAD.MAP) the RAM and Flash addresses back so that the Flash is now addressed on page 04, and the RAM on page 01 is available for run-time use by your program.

The Control-C download file does all this for you so you don’t need to worry about the details. But if you’re interested, just peruse the download file in the editor where you’ll see the commands it uses to manage memory during the download process.

You can now run the program by typing

MAIN↓

or any function name that was preceded with the _Q designator. (By the way, the _Q does not compromise performance in any way; it simply makes it possible for the PC-resident batch routines to send out the execution addresses of the designated functions to the QScreen Controller to simplify debugging).

 

Locating nonvolatile data in EEPROM

The QScreen Controller’s built-in EEPROM provides an ideal place to store calibration constants or other data that must be changed from time to time, but that must be retained even when power is removed. The EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be modified up to 10,000 times before it loses its ability to retain data. The ANALOGIO.C file presents an example of how to locate a static "variable" in EEPROM.

The EEPROM variable should be declared as an un-initialized static variable; these are located by the linker in the "data" section, which normally points to system RAM where normal variables are stored. By following the syntax presented here, you can relocate the data section to point to EEPROM while defining the EEPROM variables, and then restore the data section to its standard RAM location. To define an EEPROM variable, use the following code:

#pragma  option data=.eeprom  // put the following variables in eeprom
static uchar numsamples;
static int  nonvolatile_int;
static float calibration_value;
#pragma  option data=.data  // restore the data area to RAM

The #pragma statements are pre-processor directives that are interpreted by the linker. In the code fragment above, we located three nonvolatile variables in EEPROM; note that we did NOT include initializers in the declaration statements. Initializers don’t make any sense for EEPROM variables, because special functions must be called to store values into EEPROM, so initialization can’t be accomplished by placing initialization data in the download file. These EEPROM variables must be initialized programmatically at run-time.

To store data into the EEPROM variables, use the following functions which are declared in the XMEM.H file in the \FABIUS\INCLUDE\MOSAIC directory:

void StoreEEChar(char value, char* addr)
void StoreEEInt(int value, int* addr)
void StoreEELong(long value, long* addr)
void StoreEEFloat(float value, float* addr)

To learn how to interactively modify the contents of EEPROM variables, read the glossary entries for these functions in the Control-C Glossary.

These EEPROM storage functions are easy to use. For example, to store the value 123 into the character variable numsamples, you would place the following statement in your program:

StoreEEChar( 123, &numsamples);

To avoid wearing out the EEPROM by executing unneeded write cycles, these functions check whether each EEPROM byte already holds its specified contents. If so, the write is not performed. Thus there is no penalty for redundant execution of commands that initialize particular locations in EEPROM.

While EEPROM variables must initialized programmatically at run-time the first time they are used, they don’t need to be re-initialized each time the processor starts up because the nonvolatile EEPROM retains the data. Even so, initializations can be performed every time the processor starts up, with no adverse effects on the life span of the EEPROM. For example, initialization code in an autostart routine could execute ATTACH functions to ensure that all needed interrupt vectors are properly initialized each time the processor restarts. If the EEPROM cells have been corrupted for some reason, the ATTACH command installs the correct contents, but if the specified interrupt vector information is already in the EEPROM, the memory cells are not needlessly rewritten.

Caution: Interrupts are disabled during writes to EEPROM
All of the EEPROM storage routines globally disable interrupts while each EEPROM byte is being programmed, and it takes 20 milliseconds to program each byte. Thus you should avoid storing values in EEPROM while time-critical events are being serviced by interrupts.

For experts and the curious: Interrupts are disabled during stores to EEPROM because QED-Forth vectors all interrupts via the EEPROM, and the 68HC11 hardware does not allow any EEPROM cells to be read while a single EEPROM cell is being written to. Thus if an interrupt occurs while one of the EEPROM storage functions is writing to EEPROM, the interrupt will not be able to read the instruction code in the interrupt vector. Disabling interrupts prevents this error, but the interrupt service is delayed until the EEPROM write is finished.

 

Write-protecting EEPROM

It is possible to write-protect locations within the EEPROM to ensure the integrity of calibration constants or other vital information. This is done using the EEPROM block protect register named BPROT (MC68HC11F1 Technical Data Manual mc68hc11f1.rev3.pdf, p.4-13[DJS2]). Four blocks of size 32, 64, 128, and 288 bytes may be individually protected by storing an appropriate configuration value to BPROT. The contents of the BPROT register may be changed using the C function InstallRegisterInits; please consult its glossary entry for details.

To make a turnkeyed application maximally "bullet-proof" and fail-safe, consider using the BPROT register to protect the first three blocks in the EEPROM totaling 224 bytes. This protects the onboard kernel’s configuration region (the first 32 bytes in EEPROM) plus the interrupt vectors (the next 160 bytes in EEPROM) plus an additional 32 bytes available the programmer. The remaining 288 bytes of EEPROM then remain available for modification by the application program.

 

Using C arrays and Forth (kernel) arrays

Storing data acquisition results in C arrays and forth arrays

Programs written in Control-C use space in common memory to store variables. You may store simple variables or arrays of variables there using standard C syntax. However, common memory is limited to approximately 9K. It can get used quickly in multitasking systems because each task requires a task area of about 1K. Consequently, the programmer may require access to additional RAM. Access is provided through the use of Kernel Arrays, also called Forth Arrays. Using Forth Arrays you may dynamically dimension arrays of virtually any size in the extended address space – and their memory allocation is automatically handled by the kernel’s heap memory manager.

The code presented in the sample program ANALOGIO.C uses a C array and a FORTH_ARRAY to store the results of multiple A/D conversions. This section uses that code as an example to discuss some interesting features of both C Arrays and FORTH_ARRAYs.

 

Declaring a C array

The use of C arrays is discussed in detail in all standard C texts. In this program, the one-dimensional 16-element character array named results_8 is declared and allocated in RAM using the statement:

uchar results_8[DEFAULT_NUMSAMPLES];

where DEFAULT_NUMSAMPLES is a constant equal to 16. The arrays are easy to use. For example, the following C statement assigns the last element in the array to a static variable named my_variable:

my_variable = results_8[15];

To see another simple example that demonstrates how C arrays are accessed, look at the InitAnalog() function in the ANALOGIO.C file. The results_8 array is zeroed by executing the following statement:

for( i = 0; i < DEFAULT_NUMSAMPLES; ++i )
    results_8[i] = 0;   // zero the array

Note that this array is dimensioned and allocated by the compiler and linker. In contrast, FORTH_ARRAYS are dimensioned and allocated dynamically by the run-time program itself.

 

Converting a 16-bit address to a 32-bit xaddress

The AD8ToCArray() function that we just used provides an interesting example of type conversion. The definition of the function is:

_Q void AD8ToCArray( int channel )
{
    EXTENDED_ADDR buffer;
    buffer.sixteen_bit.addr16 = results_8;
    buffer.sixteen_bit.page16 = 0;
    AD8Multiple( buffer.addr32, 0, DEFAULT_NUMSAMPLES, channel );
}

The purpose of AD8ToCArray() is to properly call AD8Multiple() which is defined in the ANALOG.H file. AD8Multiple() is optimized to use a FORTH_ARRAY buffer, and so expects a 32 bit buffer xaddress instead of a simple 16 bit buffer address. To convert the simple 16 bit address returned by results_8 into a 32 bit extended address, we take advantage of the EXTENDED_ADDR union defined in the TYPES.H file in the \FABIUS\INCLUDE\MOSAIC directory. The union is defined as:

typedef union
{
    xaddr addr32;
    struct
    {
        uint  page16;
        char* addr16;
    } sixteen_bit;
} EXTENDED_ADDR;

To convert a 16 bit address into a 32 bit xaddress, we use the EXTENDED_ADDR typedef to declare an instance of the union (named "buffer" in this example), store the 16 bit address into the buffer.sixteen_bit.addr16 element, and store 0 (the default page) into the buffer.sixteen_bit.page16 element. Then we reference the corresponding 32 bit xaddress via the buffer.addr32 element of the union. While it is rare that you will have to convert from 16 bit to 32 bit address types, this example provides a template for how to do it.

 

A review of Forth arrays

FORTH_ARRAYs have two key advantages. First, they are allocated in paged memory, so they allow your program to access the large 1 Megabyte memory space of the QScreen. In contrast, C arrays must reside in the available common RAM which is limited to approximately 9 kilobytes on the QScreen Controller. Second, they can be dynamically dimensioned, re-dimensioned and de-allocated (deleted) while your program is running; this boosts efficiency by maximizing the use of the available memory.

To define a new Forth Array, simply use the FORTH_ARRAY typedef followed by a name of your choice. For example, in the ANALOGIO.C file the following declaration appears:

FORTH_ARRAY results_12;

Before the FORTH_ARRAY can be accessed at runtime, it must be dimensioned. This is typically accomplished by calling the DIM() macro defined in the ARRAY.H header file. For example, to dimension the results_12 array to have 10 rows and 1 column of integer data, we would execute:

DIM(int, 10, 1, results_12);

In the ANALOGIO.C file, the pre-defined macro named DIM_AD12_BUFFER() invokes the DIM() routine for us (its definition is in the ANALOG.H file in the \FABIUS\INCLUDE\MOSAIC directory).

After the FORTH_ARRAY is dimensioned, it can be accessed by a family of macros and functions that are defined in the ARRAY.H header file and are described in the Control-C Glossary. These include functions that fetch from, store to, and calculate the address of individual elements, swap and copy entire arrays, fill an array with a specified character, and delete the array so that it no longer requires memory in the heap. The PrintForthArray() and InitAnalog() functions in ANALOGIO.C provide examples of how to call a few of these functions.

 

Printing the contents of a Forth array

The PrintForthArray() function presented in ANALOGIO.C is a more general version of the PrintFPArray() function in GETSTART.C as discussed in an earlier chapter[pkc3]. The function is defined as follows:

_Q void PrintForthArray( int float_flag, FORTH_ARRAY* array_ptr )
// works for FORTH_ARRAYS dimensioned using the standard DIM() macro.
// float_flag is true if array holds float numbers, false otherwise.
{
    int r, c;
    putchar( '\n' );
 
    for ( r = 0; r < NUMROWS(array_ptr); r++ )         // for each row
    {
        for  ( c = 0; c < NUMCOLUMNS(array_ptr); c++ ) // for each column
        {
            if(float_flag)
                printf( "%9.4g  ", FARRAYFETCH( float, r, c, array_ptr ) );
            else
                printf( "%9ld  ", ARRAYFETCH( long, r, c, array_ptr ) );
        }
 
        putchar('\n');       // newline after each row is printed
        PauseOnKey();        // implement xon/xoff output flow control
    }
}

After calling putchar() to output a newline character, we enter nested for() statements that print the contents of each element. Because the compiler treats floating point numbers differently than numbers stored in other formats, we use FARRAYFETCH() to access floating point arrays, and ARRAYFETCH() to access char, int or long arrays. The PauseOnKey() function is called once per row to suspend the QScreen Controller’s printed output if the terminal program has sent the XOFF handshake character; the printout resumes when the terminal sends the XON character. PauseOnKey() also gives the user the ability to terminate the printout by typing a carriage return character from the terminal.

This function can be tailored to meet the detailed needs of your application. You can change the printf() formatting, or insert extra carriage returns to confine the printout to one screen width.

 
This page is about: Extended Memory for 68HC11 Microcontroller - Common and Paged Flash, RAM, and EEPROM Memory – Describes the types of available memory (Flash, RAM, and EEPROM), different regions of memory (common and paged), where the compiler allocates memory, how paged memory works, and how to access paged memory from C language programs on the 68HC11 microcontroller based QScreen Controller. address space, nonvolatile memory, paged memory
 
 
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